| ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | 第1-5页 |
| ABSTRACT | 第5-10页 |
| 摘要 | 第10-14页 |
| LIST OF FIGURES | 第14-15页 |
| LIST OF TABLES | 第15-18页 |
| LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS | 第18-26页 |
| Chapter 1 General introduction and review of literature | 第26-63页 |
| ·Introduction | 第26-27页 |
| ·Factors affecting characteristics of low fat butter spreads | 第27-42页 |
| ·Fat | 第27-28页 |
| ·Thickening/stabilizing agents | 第28-29页 |
| ·Minerals | 第29-32页 |
| ·Emulsifiers | 第32-35页 |
| ·Types of emulsifiers | 第33-35页 |
| ·Roles of proteins and dairy additives | 第35-36页 |
| ·Preservatives | 第36-37页 |
| ·Other additives | 第37页 |
| ·Heat treatments | 第37-38页 |
| ·pH values | 第38-40页 |
| ·Homogenization | 第40-41页 |
| ·Packaging | 第41页 |
| ·Storage temperature | 第41-42页 |
| ·Freezing and thawing | 第42页 |
| ·Emulsion stability and destabilization mechanisms | 第42-47页 |
| ·The physical instabilities | 第43-45页 |
| ·Ostwald ripening | 第43页 |
| ·Creaming | 第43-44页 |
| ·Flocculation | 第44页 |
| ·Coalescence | 第44页 |
| ·Partial coalescence | 第44-45页 |
| ·Phase inversion | 第45页 |
| ·Factors affecting emulsion stability | 第45-47页 |
| ·Dispersed phase (fat phase) | 第45-47页 |
| ·Continuous phase-water | 第47页 |
| ·The interfacial membrane-emulsifiers | 第47页 |
| ·Emulsion instability | 第47-48页 |
| ·Interactions of ingredients in low fat spreads | 第48-49页 |
| ·Vegetable oils used in manufacture of low fat butter spreads | 第49-52页 |
| ·Sunflower oil | 第49-51页 |
| ·Corn oil | 第51-52页 |
| ·Codex Alimentarius for dairy fat spreads | 第52-54页 |
| ·Significance of research topic | 第54-55页 |
| ·Objectives of this research | 第55-56页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第56-63页 |
| Chapter 2 Effect of different pH values on properties of buffalo and cow butter-based low-fat spreads | 第63-95页 |
| ·Introduction | 第63-64页 |
| ·Materials and methods | 第64-69页 |
| ·Materials | 第64页 |
| ·Preparation of buffalo and cow butter oil | 第64页 |
| ·Preparation of B-LFS and C-LFS with different pH values | 第64-65页 |
| ·Sensory evaluation | 第65页 |
| ·Morphology evaluation | 第65-66页 |
| ·Color analysis | 第66页 |
| ·Peroxide value | 第66页 |
| ·Oil stability index | 第66-67页 |
| ·Fatty acids composition | 第67页 |
| ·Solid fat content | 第67页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第67-68页 |
| ·Hardness | 第67-68页 |
| ·Apparent viscosity | 第68页 |
| ·Melting behavior | 第68页 |
| ·Statistical analysis | 第68-69页 |
| ·Results and discussion | 第69-89页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on sensory and morphology evaluations of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第69-74页 |
| ·Instrumental color values of pH treatments | 第74-75页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on PVs of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第75-76页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on OSI of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第76-77页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on FAC of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第77-81页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on SFC values of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第81-85页 |
| ·Rheological properties | 第85-87页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on the hardness of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第85-86页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on the viscosity of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第86-87页 |
| ·Effect of different pH values on the melting behavior of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第87-89页 |
| ·Conclusion | 第89-90页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第90-95页 |
| Chapter 3 Effect of sodium chloride on properties of buffalo and cow butter-based low-fat spreads | 第95-127页 |
| ·Introduction | 第95-96页 |
| ·Materials and methods | 第96-99页 |
| ·Materials | 第96页 |
| ·Preparation of buffalo and cow butter oil | 第96-97页 |
| ·Preparation of B-LFS and C-LFS with different NaCl concentrations | 第97页 |
| ·Sensory evaluation | 第97页 |
| ·Morphology evaluation | 第97页 |
| ·Color analysis | 第97-98页 |
| ·pH values | 第98页 |
| ·Peroxide value | 第98页 |
| ·Oil stability index | 第98页 |
| ·Fatty acids composition | 第98页 |
| ·Solid fat content | 第98页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第98页 |
| ·Hardness | 第98页 |
| ·Apparent viscosity | 第98页 |
| ·Melting behavior | 第98页 |
| ·Statistical analysis | 第98-99页 |
| ·Results and discussion | 第99-121页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on the sensory and morphological properties of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第99-103页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on instrumental color values of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第103-104页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on pH of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第104-105页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on PVs of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第105-107页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on OSI values of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第107-108页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on FAC of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第108-112页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on SFC of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第112-116页 |
| ·Rheological properties | 第116-118页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on the hardness of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第116-117页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on the viscosity of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第117-118页 |
| ·Effect of NaCl concentrations on the melting behavior of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第118-121页 |
| ·Conclusion | 第121-122页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第122-127页 |
| Chapter 4 Effects of different CaCl2concentrations on properties of buffalo and cow butter-based low-fat spreads | 第127-159页 |
| ·Introduction | 第127-128页 |
| ·Materials and methods | 第128-131页 |
| ·Materials | 第128页 |
| ·Preparation of buffalo and cow butter oil | 第128-129页 |
| ·Preparation of B-LFS and C-LFS with different CaCl2concentrations | 第129页 |
| ·Sensory evaluation | 第129页 |
| ·Morphology evaluation | 第129-130页 |
| ·Color analysis | 第130页 |
| ·pH values | 第130页 |
| ·Peroxide value | 第130页 |
| ·Oil stability index | 第130页 |
| ·Fatty acids composition | 第130页 |
| ·Solid fat content | 第130页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第130页 |
| ·Hardness | 第130页 |
| ·Apparent viscosity | 第130页 |
| ·Melting behavior | 第130页 |
| ·Statistical analysis | 第130-131页 |
| ·Results and discussion | 第131-153页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on the sensory and morphological evaluations of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第131-137页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on instrumental color values of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第137-138页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on pH of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第138-139页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on PVs of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第139-140页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on OSI values of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第140-141页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on FAC of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第141-145页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on SFC of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第145-149页 |
| ·Rheological properties | 第149-151页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on the hardness of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第149-150页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on the viscosity of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第150-151页 |
| ·Effect of different CaCl2concentrations on the thermal behavior of B-LFS and C-LFS | 第151-153页 |
| ·Conclusion | 第153-154页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第154-159页 |
| Chapter 5 Effects of replacement buffalo and cow butter by corn oil on properties of low-fat butter spreads | 第159-193页 |
| ·Introduction | 第159-160页 |
| ·Materials and methods | 第160-163页 |
| ·Materials | 第160页 |
| ·Preparation of buffalo and cow butter oil | 第160-161页 |
| ·Preparation of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第161页 |
| ·Sensory evaluation | 第161页 |
| ·Color analysis | 第161页 |
| ·pH values | 第161-162页 |
| ·Peroxide value | 第162页 |
| ·Oil stability index | 第162页 |
| ·Fatty acids composition | 第162页 |
| ·Solid fat content | 第162页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第162页 |
| ·Hardness | 第162页 |
| ·Apparent viscosity | 第162页 |
| ·Melting behavior | 第162页 |
| ·Statistical analysis | 第162-163页 |
| ·Results and discussion | 第163-188页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on the sensory evaluation of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第163-168页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on instrumental color values of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第168-170页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter by corn oil on pH of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第170-171页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on the PVs of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第171-172页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on OSI values of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第172-174页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on FAC of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第174-179页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on SFC of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第179-183页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第183-186页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on the hardness of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第183-185页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on the viscosity of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第185-186页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on the melting behavior of BC-LFS and CC-LFS | 第186-188页 |
| ·Conclusion | 第188-189页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第189-193页 |
| Chapter 6 Effects of replacement buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on properties of low-fat butter spreads | 第193-226页 |
| ·Introduction | 第193-194页 |
| ·Materials and methods | 第194-196页 |
| ·Materials | 第194页 |
| ·Preparation of buffalo and cow butter oil | 第194-195页 |
| ·Preparation of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第195页 |
| ·Sensory evaluation | 第195页 |
| ·Color analysis | 第195页 |
| ·pH value | 第195页 |
| ·Peroxide value | 第195-196页 |
| ·Oil stability index | 第196页 |
| ·Fatty acids composition | 第196页 |
| ·Solid fat content | 第196页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第196页 |
| ·Hardness | 第196页 |
| ·Apparent viscosity | 第196页 |
| ·Melting behavior | 第196页 |
| ·Statistical analysis | 第196页 |
| ·Results and discussion | 第196-222页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on the sensory evaluation of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第196-202页 |
| ·Color & appearance | 第196-197页 |
| ·Body & texture | 第197页 |
| ·Spreadability | 第197-198页 |
| ·Flavor | 第198页 |
| ·Overall acceptability | 第198-202页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by corn oil on instrumental color values of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第202-204页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on pH of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第204-205页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on PVs of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第205-207页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on OSI values of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第207-208页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on FAC of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第208-213页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on SFC of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第213-217页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第217-220页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on the hardness of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第217-218页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on the viscosity of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第218-220页 |
| ·Effect of replacing buffalo and cow butter oil by sunflower oil on the melting behavior of BF-LFS and CF-LFS | 第220-222页 |
| ·Conclusion | 第222-223页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第223-226页 |
| Chapter 7 Effects of the homogenization and whipping processes on properties of buffalo butter-based low-fat spreads | 第226-251页 |
| ·Introduction | 第226-227页 |
| ·Materials and methods | 第227-231页 |
| ·Materials | 第227页 |
| ·Preparation of buffalo butter oil | 第227-228页 |
| ·Preparation of the homogenized and whipped treatments | 第228-229页 |
| ·Sensory evaluation | 第229页 |
| ·Morphology evaluation | 第229页 |
| ·Color analysis | 第229页 |
| ·Particle size measurements | 第229页 |
| ·pH values | 第229页 |
| ·Peroxide value | 第229页 |
| ·Oil stability index | 第229页 |
| ·Fatty acids composition | 第229-230页 |
| ·Determination of flavor compounds in the homogenized and whipped treatments | 第230页 |
| ·Solid fat content | 第230页 |
| ·Rheological measurements | 第230-231页 |
| ·Hardness | 第230-231页 |
| ·Apparent viscosity | 第231页 |
| ·Melting and crystallization behaviors | 第231页 |
| ·Statistical analysis | 第231页 |
| ·Results and discussion | 第231-247页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping processes on the sensory and morphological evaluations of B-LFS | 第231-234页 |
| ·Color analysis of the homogenized and whipped treatments | 第234-235页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping processes on fat globule size distribution of B-LFS | 第235-236页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping on pH, PVs and OSI values of B-LF | 第236-237页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping processes on FAC of B-LFS | 第237-238页 |
| ·Volatile compounds of the homogenized and whipped treatments | 第238-243页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping processes on SFC of B-LFS | 第243-245页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping processes on the rheological measurements of B-LFS | 第245-246页 |
| ·Effect of the homogenization and whipping processes on the melting and crystallization behaviors of B-LFS | 第246-247页 |
| ·Conclusion | 第247-248页 |
| ·Literature cited | 第248-251页 |
| Chapter 8 General conclusion and recommendations | 第251-253页 |
| ·General Conclusion | 第251-252页 |
| ·Key innovation of the thesis | 第252页 |
| ·Recommendations for future work | 第252-253页 |
| ·List of publications | 第253页 |
